The conduct manuals of the time taught courtiers and wealthy patricians in Italy’s cities how to refine their conversation, even as they often included an almost endless list of skills that were necessary for anyone hoping to be admitted into aristocratic society. As the conduct manual moved into these new frontiers, writers pared down the number of skills and arts that were necessary for their readers to master, while preserving somelike dancing and singing as essential tools that demonstrated a person’s refinement. They soon acquired a broader readership, being studied not only by courtiers and patricians but also by members of the urban bourgeoisie.
In this way achievement in the arts and at least a passable degree of classical learning functioned as necessary skills for those who desired to participate in the public world.
Printing also sounded the death knell for the art of hand copying and illuminating manuscripts with beautiful miniatures. At the same time, printing was only the most visible of the many technological innovations that transformed the arts and scholarship in Renaissance Europe.
In music, new instruments similarly increased the tonal range and volume of instruments, even as rich forms of polyphony introduced a new harmonic complexity and depth of sound in choral music. This list of technical innovations that occurred in the arts and humanistic scholarship of the period might be lengthened considerably, and it forms a significant focus in all the chapters that follow. But more fundamentally the rise of a climate of technological experimentation points to the development of a culture increasingly concerned with pioneering ways of mastering and extending the possibilities of the natural world, an observation that many scholars have long associated with the Renaissance. At the same time not every attempt to improve artistic production or scholarly techniques was successful. In creating his famous painting of the Last Supper at Milan, Leonardo da Vinci experimented with a new medium of fresco that mixed traditional pigments with oils. Soon after he completed his work, the painting began literally to slide off the wall, much to the chagrin of art lovers ever since. But many more technical
innovations were successful than unsuccessful, and the legacy of Renaissance experimentation greatly extended the expressive power of the arts in Europe over the centuries that followed.
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